There is limited research on psychopathy in the general work populace, in part because the PCL-R includes antisocial behavior as a significant core factor (obtaining a PCL-R score above the threshold is unlikely without having significant scores on the antisocial-lifestyle factor) and does not include positive adjustment characteristics, and most researchers have studied psychopathy in incarcerated criminals, a relatively accessible population of research subjects. [219]

a b Wenzel, Amy, ed. (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p.2744. ISBN 9781483365824. OCLC 982958263. Hare, Robert (2006). Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go To Work. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-083772-3.Psychopathy, as measured with the PCL-R in institutional settings, shows in meta-analyses small to moderate effect sizes with institutional misbehavior, postrelease crime, or postrelease violent crime with similar effects for the three outcomes. Individual studies give similar results for adult offenders, forensic psychiatric samples, community samples, and youth. The PCL-R is poorer at predicting sexual re-offending. This small to moderate effect appears to be due largely to the scale items that assess impulsive behaviors and past criminal history, which are well-established but very general risk factors. The aspects of core personality often held to be distinctively psychopathic generally show little or no predictive link to crime by themselves. For example, Factor 1 of the PCL-R and Fearless dominance of the PPI-R have smaller or no relationship to crime, including violent crime. In contrast, Factor 2 and Impulsive antisociality of the PPI-R are associated more strongly with criminality. Factor 2 has a relationship of similar strength to that of the PCL-R as a whole. The antisocial facet of the PCL-R is still predictive of future violence after controlling for past criminal behavior which, together with results regarding the PPI-R which by design does not include past criminal behavior, suggests that impulsive behaviors is an independent risk factor. Thus, the concept of psychopathy may perform poorly when attempted to be used as a general theory of crime. [4] [83] Violence [ edit ] Mills, Jeremy F.; Kroner, Daryl G.; Morgan, Robert D. (2011). "Psychopathic Traits". Clinician's Guide to Violence Risk Assessment. New York City: Guilford Press. pp.55–64. ISBN 978-1-60623-985-8. Archived from the original on 2017-04-04 . Retrieved 2016-02-03– via Google Books. The Hard Sell for Psychopathy Research Funding". Center for Science and Law. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 . Retrieved 10 March 2016. a b Neumann, Craig S. "Will the Real Psychopath Please Stand Up?". research.unt.edu. University of North Texas. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016 . Retrieved 23 April 2016.

Otto Kernberg, from a particular psychoanalytic perspective, believed psychopathy should be considered as part of a spectrum of pathological narcissism, that would range from narcissistic personality on the low end, malignant narcissism in the middle, and psychopathy at the high end. [53]

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The Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, otherwise known as the TriPM, is a 58-item, self-report assessment that measures psychopathy within the three traits identified in the triarchic model: boldness, meanness and disinhibition. Each trait is measured on separate subscales and added up resulting in a total psychopathy score. [184] High levels of testosterone combined with low levels of cortisol and/or serotonin have been theorized as contributing factors. Testosterone is "associated with approach-related behavior, reward sensitivity, and fear reduction", and injecting testosterone "shift[s] the balance from punishment to reward sensitivity", decreases fearfulness, and increases "responding to angry faces". Some studies have found that high testosterone levels are associated with antisocial and aggressive behaviors, yet other research suggests that testosterone alone does not cause aggression but increases dominance-seeking. It is unclear from studies if psychopathy correlates with high testosterone levels, but a few studies have found that disruption of serotonin neurotransmission disrupts cortisol reactivity to a stress-inducing speech task. Thus, dysregulation of serotonin in the brain may contribute to the low cortisol levels observed in psychopathy. Cortisol increases withdrawal behavior and sensitivity to punishment and aversive conditioning, which are abnormally low in individuals with psychopathy and may underlie their impaired aversion learning and disinhibited behavior. High testosterone levels combined with low serotonin levels are associated with "impulsive and highly negative reactions", and may increase violent aggression when an individual is provoked or becomes frustrated. [157] Several animal studies note the role of serotonergic functioning in impulsive aggression and antisocial behavior. [158] [159] [160] [161] Starting in the 1930s, before some modern concepts of psychopathy were developed, "sexual psychopath" laws, the term referring broadly to mental illness, were introduced by some states, and by the mid-1960s more than half of the states had such laws. Sexual offenses were considered to be caused by underlying mental illnesses, and it was thought that sex offenders should be treated, in agreement with the general rehabilitative trends at this time. Courts committed sex offenders to a mental health facility for community protection and treatment. [74] [215]

a b "A disturbing number of bosses are psychopaths". The Independent. 2016-09-13. Archived from the original on 2018-02-16 . Retrieved 2018-02-16.

a b Woodworth, Michael; Porter, Stephen (2002). "In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Psychological Association. 111 (3): 436–45. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.436. PMID 12150419.

Highlights of Changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5" (PDF). DSM-5 Development. American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 19, 2013 . Retrieved January 5, 2014.Dingfelder, Sadie F. (March 2004). "Treatment for the 'untreatable' ". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 . Retrieved 12 March 2016. a b Rutter, Steve (2007). The Psychopath: Theory, Research, and Practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p.37. ISBN 978-0-8058-6079-5. The person's family and friends will often play an active role in making decisions about their treatment and care. Psychopathy is a mental health condition characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits. [1] [2] [3] Different conceptions of psychopathy have been used throughout history that are only partly overlapping and may sometimes be contradictory. [4]