Ontic understanding has seen comparatively less interest in philosophy over the past several centuries, but this may be a historical accident ( Kvanvig, 2003). Moravscik ( 1979) argues that understanding was an important connotation of the Greek word episteme, but that word has generally been rendered in English only as knowledge. As such, Anglophone epistemologists have ignored ontic understanding until the late 20th century ( Kvanvig, 2003).

The concept of information is sometimes criticized for engendering the conduit metaphor ( Brown and Duguid, 2000; Day, 2000; Frohmann, 2004; Hjørland, 2000; Ørom, 2007). Discussed in detail by Day ( 2000), the conduit metaphor has influenced much of the development in information studies. According to Lakoff and Johnson ( 1980), the conduit metaphor is based on a three-tiered cognitive metaphor: (1) ideas are objects; (2) linguistic expressions are containers; and (3) communication is sending. In Day's ( 2000) view, this metaphor was introduced to information studies via Shannon's mathematical theory of communication, which explicitly conceptualized information transfer as a conduit-based process and has since served as the basis for information studies and communication studies. With the conduit metaphor, information is understood to be quantifiable, factual, and intentional ( Day, 2000). It ignores the possibility that, for example, a verbal message may include a meaning beyond the literal content of its words ( Day, 2000), which is an outmoded notion, as is described below in the section on understanding. Though a conduit-conducive view of information may serve engineering purposes, it is problematic for information behaviour—for this reason, Furner ( 2010) is sceptical of attempts to construct a one-size-fits-all definition of information. In any case, a satisfactory account of information for information behaviour must account for the dialogic, contextualized nature of information. Therefore, when conceptualizing information for the purposes of applied epistemology, this question should be considered. Also, as discussed above in the section on data, there still may be some usefulness in identifying discrete pieces of information, so long as the implications of doing so are considered. Understanding seems to be what happens when information is integrated, rather than merely knowledge. Thus studying understanding can be more naturalistic than studying 'getting knowledge'; and information studies has been seeking more true-to-life approaches to information behaviour ( Fidel, 2012). Bawden, D., and Robinson, L. (2016a). 'A different kind of knowing': speculations on understanding in light of the philosophy of information. Paper presented at Conceptions of Library and Information Science 9, Uppsala, Sweden. Retrieved from http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/14994 (Archived by WebCite® at http://www.webcitation.org/6rKuDcw8M) Mustapha, Zakari; Aigbavboa, Clinton; Thwala, Wellington (2018). Contractor Health and Safety Compliance for Small to Medium-Sized Construction Companies. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.115. ISBN 978-1-138-08155-0.Human beings do not use ideas to connect with other ideas, much less to connect with the real world, they use them to connect with one another. It is a commonplace observation to say that people believe what their friends believe but it is not so common to observe that there are very strict rules about this. In Hume's time, if you stood up in church and said, "I accept everything but I have reservations about Calvin's theory of pre-destination" you would be in more trouble than simply referring to it as a theory.

Bawden, D. (2016). The noblest pleasure: Theories of understanding in the information science. In D.H. Sonnenwald (Ed.), Theory development in the information sciences (pp. 283–299). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. In this sense, ontic understanding always involves a cognitive achievement, while the same cannot be said of getting knowledge ( Pritchard, 2010, 2014). Zagzebski ( 2001) describes this achievement in terms of transparency, which also makes ontic understanding more valuable than knowledge: ' It may be possible to know without knowing one knows but it is impossible to understand without understanding one understands' ( Zagzebski, 2001, p. 246). Philosophers of understanding generally refer to this achievement as grasping ( Baumberger et al., 2017). Grasping involves being able to identify how the various elements described by a model are supposed to depend upon, and relate to, one another ( Grimm, 2012; Pritchard, 2009; Kelp, 2015). To qualify as ontic understanding, the result of this grasping should be a coherent set of relationships ( Baumberger et al., 2017). One outcome of a person's having ontically understood may be their ability to apply generalizations to specific cases ( Grimm, 2012). Strewth, these dudes were more advanced than I thought. [Even though I studied them all at university!] I think they are referring to instinct except the expression 'the power of the will' seems to refer to the idea that human beings are elevated above animals in being able to set aside instinct if necessary. In its infancy, applied epistemology had been equated with social epistemology. [9] Later theorizing established that, while there are overlapping aspects, not all social epistemology is applied and not all applied epistemology is social. [10] A proposed analogy to distinguish applied epistemology from epistemology holds that it involves the general opposition between theory and application. [11] In applied epistemology, theories in epistemology are applied for solving practical problems. The theoretical constructions in this environment can be modified or reorganized in function of the primary target. [11] Concept [ edit ] The relationship between basic concepts of epistemology While applied epistemology is considered a new term, it has been used in the past. David Hume used the concept in his argument against belief in miracles. [12] As mentioned above, it has been assumed that the main purpose of information studies is to help people acquire knowledge ( Egan and Shera, 1952; Fallis, 2006). As such, knowledge has been a much-discussed epistemic aim in information studies. Furner ( 2010) contends that information studies has no standard conception of knowledge, which is supported by Rowley's ( 2007) survey of introductory textbooks. Synthesizing the literature, Furner ( 2010) identifies two rival views: knowledge as true information (i.e., objective knowledge), and knowledge as individually internalized information (i.e., personal knowledge).Floridi, L. (2008). Data. In A. Darity (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 234–237). Detroit, MI: Macmillan. a b c Coady, David; Chase, James (2018-09-03). The Routledge Handbook of Applied Epistemology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-39314-6. Social epistemology accounts for the social nature of knowledge and justification. The quality and extent of an individual’s knowledge depends heavily on the people that individual deems trustworthy. The same is the case for group or public knowledge (knowledge generally accepted as true by a collective). Individuals and perspectives granted expert status have more influence on what is accepted, but this means that many individuals and perspectives will be ignored. Furthermore, it is often types or groups of people who are excluded, which becomes problematic if the perspectives of those groups are valuable to the task of knowledge creation. Standpoint epistemology takes this worry seriously. Standpoint epistemology studies the relationship between an individual’s social status and that individual’s epistemic position. Of particular importance to the theory is the notion that the relative power of individuals and groups influences who we consider to be reliable sources, causing us to ignore the perspectives of less powerful groups. Furthermore, standpoint theory argues that the exclusion of entire groups harms the entire enterprise of gaining knowledge. The main domains of applied epistemology include education and pedagogy, therapy, politics, science and technology, arts, and artificial intelligence. [11] Applications [ edit ]

Analysis. A conceptual analysis was conducted to determine the nature and relationships of the concepts surveyed, with an eye toward synthesizing conceptualizations of understanding and opening future research directions. This very much seems like a job for fallacy theory, broadly speaking. Here’s an example from the article referred to above: You took the words out my mouth, Ishmael. But permit me to amend your opaque remarks. People not only think their friends are not cretins, they think them the last word in wisdom. On account of them holding the same views as themselves. Everyone else is, by extension, a cretin. Perhaps that's what you meant. Battersby, Mark; Bailin, Sharon (2018). Inquiry: A New Paradigm for Critical Thinking. University of Windsor. p.255. ISBN 978-0-920233-84-9.

References

What is information studies for? Presumably, the products and processes that result from information research are intended for some purpose. Information involves intellectual activity, and so it would seem that information products and processes contribute to some epistemic aims (i.e., goals related to knowing), among other possible aims. These aims are generally left implicit; explicating them, however, can clarify the contribution of a given study, product or service. It seems that information studies has long assumed knowledge as its default epistemic aim; understanding has emerged as an intriguing alternative in recent years, necessitating reconsideration of epistemic frameworks. a b Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper; Brownlee, Kimberley; Coady, David (2016). A Companion to Applied Philosophy. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp.16, 19. ISBN 978-1-118-86913-0. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written Goldman, Alvin I. (2012). Reliabilism and Contemporary Epistemology: Essays. New York: Oxford University Press, USA. p.273. ISBN 978-0-19-981287-5.

The Applied Epistemology Library :: View Forum - British History The Library Index FAQ Search Register Moshman, David (2015). Epistemic Cognition and Development: The Psychology of Justification and Truth. New York, NY: Psychology Press. p.124. ISBN 978-1-84872-513-3.Applied epistemology refers to the study that determines whether the systems of investigation that seek the truth lead to true beliefs about the world. [1] A specific conceptualization cites that it attempts to reveal whether these systems contribute to epistemic aims. [2] It is applied in practices outside of philosophy like science and mathematics. [1] Understanding has a sizable literature in philosophy, spanning hermeneutics, epistemology, philosophy of language and aesthetics, which can continue to be integrated and contribute to information studies.