There are two types of advantage in sport: competition advantages and category advantages. Competition advantages are the sorts of things that we let play out in sport: who is the most skilful, or fastest, or the best tactician? And, yes, sometimes, we are interested in who has the biggest genetic gifts, like the lung capacity of cyclist Miguel Indurain or the wingspan of swimmer Michael Phelps – and what they can do with it.

Cognitive sex differences and hemispheric Full article: Cognitive sex differences and hemispheric

Mean age of the participants in a sample was included both as a continuous and a categorical variable. When considered categorically, five groups were defined: aged younger than 13 years (29 samples), between 13 and 17 years (inclusive; 10 samples), between 18 and 29 years (inclusive; 36 samples), between 30 and 49 years (inclusive; 10 samples), and above 49 years (13 samples). These categories were arbitrary, but we hoped that they would capture various periods of development reasonably well. It is important to note that mean age of the sample was not always reported in the retrieved studies. However, when the school grade was given, the age variable was coded using the approach proposed by Voyer et al. ( 1995). For example, in North America, children in grade 1 are typically 6 years old, whereas first-year undergraduate students are usually 19 years old. A working group will be set up to conduct further research into the transgender eligibility guidelines. And Lord Coe said: “We’re not saying no forever.” Ioannidis, J. P. A., & Trikalinos, T. A. (2007). An exploratory test for an excess of significant findings. Clinical Trials, 4, 245–253. Kaufman Casey, B. M., Dearing, E., Vasilyeva, M., Ganley, C. M., & Tine, M. (2011). Spatial and numerical predictors of measurement performance: The moderating effects of community income and gender. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 296–311. doi: 10.1037/a0022516

This combination of power and strength is part of why men have an advantage in short and middle distance running events. Whether you can do pancake splits or struggle with a lunge, the key is again, hormones. “Oestrogen tends to increase flexibility, and men don’t really have a huge reserve of oestrogen,” says Prof Lee. “That’s why premenopausal women are typically more flexible.” A number of variables were coded as factors that might moderate sex differences in visual-spatial working memory. Specifically, characteristics relevant to the samples themselves (sample level variables) and factors inherent to the tasks used in each study (measure level variables) were considered. Sample level variables

How world sport got into a mess over trans athletes – and how

As an additional source of information, the most recently developed approach to an examination of the publication bias also was considered. Specifically, Ioannidis and Trikalinos ( 2007) proposed a test based on the rationale that a publication bias in a set of effect sizes should produce an excess of observed positive findings when compared to what is expected from the power of individual studies. As a conservative measure, Ioannidis and Trikalinos recommended use of 0.10 as the significance level for such test to reduce the risk of Type II errors. Weaker bone density will play a role in the prevalence of stress fractures in female athletes. Flexibility So, is it true that athletes born male will always have the edge over those born female, despite the current level of testosterone in their body? Here, we take a look at the science. Genetics and hormones Findings of the subgroup analysis showed that the fixed-effects model could not be rejected in the memory for location and memory for token tasks. This testifies to the consistency of the female advantage in location tasks and male advantage for token tasks. The results are particularly interesting in memory for location, because they seem not to fit with the rest of the data, as discussed earlier. It is legitimate to state that such tasks produce significant and consistent sex differences in favor of females.Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? Progress in Brain Research, 169, 323–338. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 To achieve these goals, a two stage process was used, similar to the approach proposed by Voyer and Voyer ( 2014) in the analysis of sex differences in scholastic achievement. Specifically, because many researchers used a variety of relevant measures of visual-spatial working memory in their design, the typical fixed effect or random effect meta-analysis would require collapsing across these tests or randomly selecting one effect size to avoid violation of the homogeneity of effect sizes assumption (Borenstein et al., 2009). Accordingly, the present analysis relied on the multilevel modeling approach to meta-analysis (Hox, 2008; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002), because it makes no assumption concerning independence of effects and it applies readily to the hierarchical structure of a meta-analysis. Therefore, as a first step, computation of the overall effect size and of the moderator analysis relied on this approach. As a simple way to examine the potential influence of the file-drawer problem on our results, we compared the mean estimated effect sizes for samples obtained from published ( k = 88 samples) and unpublished research ( k = 10 samples). This analysis showed no significant influence of publication status: χ 2 (1) = 0.001, p> 0.5. This suggests no evidence of a publication bias in the present sample. The multilevel analysis was computed by examining data organized in two levels: effect sizes nested within samples. This structure resulted in 182 effect sizes (Level 1) nested within 98 samples (Level 2). All analyses were conducted with the HLM 7 software (Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, Congdon, & du Toit, 2011) with the significance level set at 0.05. Only moderators that produced significant results are elaborated upon. Task subgroups analyses

The Male Advantage: A step by step blueprint for achieving

Accordingly, we examined publication bias with the method proposed by Ioannidis and Trikalinos ( 2007). As a starting point, we defined a positive finding as a result showing a male advantage, because it would support the potentially pervasive expectations from reviewers and editors leading to a publication bias. Having established this component, we then determined whether the distribution of effect sizes was asymmetrically biased toward those reflecting a male advantage compared with what would be expected by chance under null hypothesis statistical testing. This approach relies exclusively on the logic of hypothesis testing and makes no further assumption as is required, for example, in the commonly used Egger’s test (Egger, Davey Smith, Schneider, & Minder, 1997). In fact, unlike the Egger's test, the Ioannidis and Trikalinos method is not tied to a specific meta-analytic model (e.g., fixed or random effect model). Use of this approach in the overall data set suggests that the number of positive findings is as expected from the power of retrieved studies, reflecting no significant publication bias (Observed = 47, Expected = 43.42, χ 2 = 0.39, p = 0.53). Most recently, World Athletics announced its “preferred option” of a reduced 2.5nmol testosterone limit for trans women to compete, with a final decision due on March 23. In January, World Athletics announced that its “preferred option” was to allow transgender female athletes to compete – but to halve the maximum testosterone limit for qualification to 2.5 nMol/l (nanomoles per litre) consistently for 24 months (compared with the current rule of below 5 nMol/l for 12 months). According to the NHS, an ideal level for women is 0.3 to 2.4 nMol.Increase government funding of high-quality day-care options to enable parents, and especially mothers, to work outside the home if they so desire, and to do so without fear that their finances or their children’s well-being will be compromised. Overall analysis in the memory for location (26 effect sizes from 9 samples) and the token (21 effect sizes from 14 samples) subgroups supported fit with the fixed effects model. Specifically, in both these grouping, non-significant homogeneity of effect sizes was observed: Q(25) = 34.96, p = 0.089 for location; Q(20) = 22.48 , p = 0.315 for token. This suggests that the fixed effects model is appropriate for these data and that sampling error accounts for variability in the effect sizes they comprise. Therefore, moderator analysis is not required or appropriate. Memory for patterns and other tasks Men experience other problems that put themselves at a disadvantage compared to women. They commit much more violence than women do and, apart from rape, also suffer a much higher rate of violent victimization. They die earlier than women and are injured more often. Because men are less involved than women in child-rearing, they also miss out on the joy of parenting that women are much more likely to experience.

The Male Advantage - Archive.org

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bateman, I., & Jones, L. P. (2003). Contrasting conventional with multi-level modeling approaches to meta-analysis: Expectation consistency in U.K. woodland recreation values. Land Economics, 79, 235–258. One issue that arises when attempting to define visual-spatial working memory is that there are as many definitions of this concept as there are theories used to explain its functioning. Wang and Carr ( 2014) present an excellent summary of the various theoretical perspectives and their implied definitions for visual-spatial working memory. However, our goal in defining visual-spatial working memory was to stay away from any specific theory while remaining broad in the inclusiveness of our definition. Therefore, throughout the present article, we use the term visual-spatial working memory in a theory-neutral manner to refer to the processes involved in the storage of spatial or visual information over a limited period of time. The studies that we sampled in our meta-analysis reflect this general definition. Identifying potential moderatorsThe change in approach will be welcomed by athletes who had voiced their opposition earlier in the year. Eilish McColgan, the long-distance runner and 2022 Commonwealth Games 10,000 metres champion, said previously: “Hormones aside, what we go through every single month within the menstrual cycle; we are not just reduced-testosterone humans,” she said. “I think there is a lot more work to be done with regards to finding out, ‘Is there an advantage?’ because, even if it is a one per cent advantage, then it is too much.”