Howson, C.M. & Picton, B.E., 1997. The species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the British Isles and surrounding seas. Belfast: Ulster Museum. [Ulster Museum publication, no. 276.] Benchmark. Exposure to dissolved oxygen concentration of less than or equal to 2 mg/l for oneweek (a change from WFD poor status to bad status). Further detail

Vidal, E.A.G., Villanueva, R., Andrade, J.P., Gleadall, I.G., Iglesias, J., Koueta, N., Rosas, C., Segawa, S., Grasse, B., Franco-Santos, R.M., Albertin, C.B., Caamal-Monsreal, C., Chimal, M.E., Edsinger-Gonzales, E., Gallardo, P., Le Pabic, C., Pascual, C., Roumbedakis, K. & Wood, J., 2014. Cephalopod Culture: Current Status of Main Biological Models and Research Priorities. In Vidal, E.A.G. (ed.) Advances in Marine Biology, 67,1-98.Häfker, N.S. 2012.Effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia on blood and tissue physiology of the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Masters thesis.Universtität Bremen.

Bettencourt, V. & Guerra, A., 1999. Carbon- and oxygen-isotope composition of the cuttlebone of Sepia officinalis: a tool for predicting ecological information? Marine Biology, 133, 651-657. Hanlon, R. & Forsythe, J.W., 1990. Diseases caused by microorganisms. Diseases of Marine Animals: Cephalopoda to Urochordata Kinne, 3, 23-46 Mating.Mating occurs in deeper water. Mate choice occurs in female Sepia officinalis and appears to be a preference, not for dominance, but for the absence of zebra banding. This might be because zebra branding infers aggression in the male (Boal, 1997). Males carry up to 1400 spermatophores and females 150-4000 eggs depending on their size. Spermatophores are placed in the female’s buccal membrane located above the mouth (Guerra, 2006). A single pair can mate several times and males have been observed to guard their mate post-insemination (Hanlon et al., 1999). Females are polyandrous and can accept and store sperm from multiple males, and can control which sperm to fertilize her eggs (Naud et al., 2005). This is referred to as the ‘cryptic female choice hypothesis’ (Eberhard, 1996). More food was consumed by sexually mature females than non-sexually mature females and mature males suggesting a higher demand (Castro & Guerra, 1999). Ho, J.-S., 1983. Metaxymolgus longicauda (Claus), a copepod associated with the cuttle-fish, Sepia officinalis L. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 63(1), 199-203.André, M., Solé, M., Lenoir, M., Durfort, M., Quero, C., Mas, A., Lombarte, A., van der Schaar, M., López-Bejar, M., Morell, M., Zaugg, S. & Houégnigan, L., 2011. Low-frequency sounds induce acoustic trauma in cephalopods. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9, 489-493.

Benchmark. A decrease in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Blanc, A. & Daguzan, J., 1999. Young cuttlefish Sepia officinalis (Mollusca: Sepiidae) in the Morbihan Bay (south Brittany, France): accessory prey of predators. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the U.K., 79, 1133-1134. Von Boletzky, S., 1974. Effets de la sous-nutrition prolongée sur le développement de la coquille de Sepia officinalis L. (Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France, 99, 667-673. Marine Management Organisation (MMO), 2017. Minimum conservation reference sizes (MCRS) in UK waters. Gov.UK. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/minimum-conservation-reference-sizes-mcrs/minimum-conservation-reference-sizes-mcrs-in-uk-waters In many areas, Sepia officinalis is fished at the maximum sustainable rate but in others, there has been a recent decline in captures in heavily fished areas. It is the most abundant cephalopod species fished in the North East Atlantic with annual landings ranging from 40,000-50,000 (ICES, 2009). The UK cuttlefish landings for UK vessels in 2015 was ca. 6000 tonnes (MMO, 2016; cited in ICES, 2017(b)). The primary mode of fishing is trawling but cuttlefish are also caught by artisanal fisheries using pots and traps (ICES, 2003). The peak inshore fishing season, unfortunately, coincides with the peak spawning period meaning adults have a limited time to reproduce and replenish the subsequent population before they are fished (ICES, 2003).

Sherrill, J., Spelman, L.H., Reidel, C.L. & Montali, R.J., 2000. Common cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis) mortality at the national zoological park: Implications for clinical management. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 31, 523-531.Guerra, Á., Hernández-Urcera, J., Garci, M.E., Sestelo, M., Regueira, M., Gilcoto, M. & González, Á.F., 2016. Spawning habitat selection by the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis in the Cíes Islands (Northwest Spain). Fisheries Research, 183, 44-54. Miramand, P. & Bentley, D., 1992. Concentration and distribution of heavy metals in tissues of two cephalopods, Eledone cirrhosa and Sepia officinalis, from the French coast of the English Channel. Marine Biology, 114, 407-414.