Young children live in a digital era in which technology and interactive media are pervasive. Given rapid changes in the types and uses of new media, the knowledge base of their effects on children’s development and learning continues to grow and shift. Emerging evidence suggests a number of cautions, including concerns about negative associations between excessive screen time and childhood obesity as well as negative impacts on toddlers’ performance on measures of fine motor, communication, and social skills. 65 There is no evidence that development is enhanced when children younger than age 2 independently use devices with screen media. 66 Keeping these cautions in mind, technology and interactive media can help to support developmentally appropriate practice. For example, technology and interactive media can facilitate communication between families, children, and teachers. It can also support learning, comprehension, and communication across language differences and provide adaptations that support inclusion of children with disabilities. The use of digital media can facilitate reflection through documentation and formative assessment by children, educators, and families. The use of media can also provide isolated children (for example, children with health problems that prevent them from participating in group settings or those with less well-developed social skills) with opportunities to engage effectively with peers. 67 The mesosystem describes how the different parts of a child’s microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For example, if a child’s caregivers take an active role in the child’s school – such as going to parent-teacher meetings or promoting children’s positive social/peer activities, such as sports participation – then this will help ensure the child’s overall growth. By contrast, if the parents or carers disagree between themselves about how best to raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons, then this will hinder the child’s growth in different developmental domains. Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074428 Learn about how to build structure and consistency in your child’s everyday routines to support their development. Frameworks that set out to explain what underpins child development can be classified into specific theories. Such theories provide a coherent view of the complex influences underpinning child development and offer guidance for practical issues encountered by parents, teachers, therapists and others concerned with promoting positive child development.

What is your understanding of child development from birth to adolescence and beyond? (see Research in Practice Child Development Chart and NSPCC The Developing World of the Child: Seeing the Child) Includes appropriateness of dress for age, gender, culture and religion; cleanliness and personal hygiene; and availability of advice from parents or caregivers about presentation in different settings. Self-care skills Minor childhood illnesses like colds, earaches and gastroenteritis generally won’t have any long-term effects on development. But disability, developmental delay and chronic or long-term conditions can affect development. Health and disability professionals can help you understand your child’s condition and how it affects development. Bruner, J. (2004). A short history of psychological theories of learning. Daedalus, 133(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1162/001152604772746657 children’s development is influenced by many factors – these include internal factors, such as their temperament, and external factors such as input from parents and othersChanges in one domain often impact other areas and highlight each area’s importance. For example, as children begin to crawl or walk, they gain new possibilities for exploring the world. This mobility in turn affects both their cognitive development and their ability to satisfy their curiosity, underscoring the importance of adaptations for children with disabilities that limit their mobility. Likewise, language development influences a child’s ability to participate in social interaction with adults and other children; such interactions, in turn, support further language development as well as further social, emotional, and cognitive development. Science is clear that children can learn multiple languages as easily as one, given adequate exposure and practice, and this process brings cognitive advantages. 24 In groups in which children speak different home languages, educators may not be able to speak each language, but they can value and support maintaining all languages. 25 Whether you’re a parent, grandparent, kinship carer or foster parent raising a child, you’re always learning. It’s OK to feel confident about what you know. And it’s OK to admit you don’t know something and ask questions or get help. Harold G, Leve L, Elam K, Thapar A, Neiderhiser J, Natsuaki M, Shaw D and Reiss D (2013) ‘The Nature of Nurture: Disentangling passive genotype-environment correlation from family relationship influences on children’s externalizing problems’ Journal of Family Psychology27 (1) 12-21

This perspective highlights the importance of identifying factors that explain individual children’s different responses to specific risks and emphasises the importance of identifying mediating and moderating factors. Kamii, C., & DeVries, R. (1978/1993.) Physical knowledge in preschool education: Implications of Piaget’s theory. Teachers College Press. Saracho, O. N. (2017). Literacy and language: New developments in research, theory, and practice. Early Child Development and Care, 187(3–4), 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1282235 Séguin L, Nikiéma B, Gauvin L, Zunzunegui M and Xu Q (2007) ‘Duration of Poverty and Child Health in the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development: Longitudinal analysis of a birth cohort’ Pediatrics 119 (5) 1063-1070

Aldgate J, Jones D, Rose W and Jeffery C (2005) The Developing World of the Child. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Development and learning are dynamic processes that reflect the complex interplay between a child’s biological characteristics and the environment, each shaping the other as well as future patterns of growth. Encouraging children to reflect on their experiences and learning and to revisit concepts over time is also an important strategy for educators. The curriculum should provide both breadth and depth with multiple opportunities to revisit concepts and experiences, rather than rapidly progressing through a wide but shallow set of experiences. Picture books and other learning materials that depict communities and situations relevant to children’s lives can be useful starting points for such reflection. Group projects with documentation, including photos, videos, child artwork and representations, child dictations, and/or children’s writing, are also important tools for encouraging reflection and for revisiting concepts over time. 63

What is your understanding of child development from birth to adolescence and beyond and the impact of parental problems on this? (see Research in Practice Child Development Chart, NSPCC The Developing World of the Child: Seeing the Child, see Cleaver, Unell, Aldgate (2011) Children’s Needs- Parenting Capacity) milestones are an important concept but should be used within a context that recognises each individual’s potentialities Each of the perspectives outlined above offer their own emphases as to the key influences on developmental outcomes. What is common across all perspectives, however, is recognition of the importance of each child’s environmental experiences – and of the family and parenting, in particular – on that child’s emotional and behavioural outcomes.If your child is not meeting the milestones for their age, or you are concerned about your child’s development, talk with your child’s doctor and share your concerns. Don’t wait! Mannering A, Harold G , Leve L, Shelton K, Shaw D, Conger R, Neiderhiser J, Scaramella L and Reiss D (2011) ‘Longitudinal Associations between Marital Instability and Child Sleep Problems across Infancy and Toddlerhood in Adoptive Families ’ Child Development 82 (4) 1252-1266 Image source: Bronfenbrenner, ecological systems theory, King’s College London, Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery

Parenting takes many different forms. However, some positive parenting practices work well across diverse families and in diverse settings when providing the care that children need to be happy and healthy, and to grow and develop well. A comprehensive report looked at the evidence in scientific publications for what works, and found these key ways that parents can support their child’s healthy development: Play (e.g., self-directed, guided, solitary, parallel, social, cooperative, onlooker, object, fantasy, physical, constructive, and games with rules) is the central teaching practice that facilitates young children’s development and learning. Play develops young children’s symbolic and imaginative thinking, peer relationships, language (English and/or additional languages), physical development, and problem-solving skills. All young children need daily, sustained opportunities for play, both indoors and outdoors. Play helps children develop large-motor and fine-motor physical competence, explore and make sense of their world, interact with others, express and control their emotions, develop symbolic and problem-solving abilities, and practice emerging skills. Consistently, studies find clear links between play and foundational capacities such as working memory, self-regulation, oral language abilities, social skills, and success in school. 29 Your child’s development is supported by positive relationships with friends and neighbours, and access to playgrounds, parks, shops and local services like child care, playgroups, kindergartens, schools, health centres and libraries. Child development: differences among children

Understanding children's development

Stanley N (2011) Children Experiencing Domestic Violence: A research review. Dartington: Research in Practice Educators contribute significantly to the child’s development by providing the support or assistance that allows the child to succeed at a task that is just beyond their current level of skill or understanding. This includes emotional support as well as strategies such as pointing out salient details or providing other cues that can help children make connections to previous knowledge and experiences. 60 As children make this stretch to a new level in a supportive context, they can go on to use the skill independently and in a variety of contexts, laying the foundation for the next challenge. Provision of such support, or scaffolding, is a key feature of effective teaching. Pairing children can be an effective way to support peer learning in which children with different abilities can scaffold each other. 61 Saracho, O. N., & Evans, R. (2021). Theorists and their developmental theories. Early Child Development and Care, 191(7–8), 993–1001.