But that’s the thing about cities: people who live in them do a good job of making them feel like them home despite all the design and architectural obstacles that may confront them, be it in a byzantine library or a sprawling park. Gard MG, Kring AM. Sex differences in the time course of emotion. Emotion. 2007; 7:429–37. pmid:17516819 Kocyba, Hermann (2000): Der Preis der Anerkennung. Von der tayloristischen Missachtung zur strategischen Instrumentalisierung der Subjektivität der Arbeitenden. In: Ursula Holtgrewe/ Stephan Voswinkel/ Gabriele Wagner (Hrsg.), Anerkennung und Arbeit. Konstanz: UVK, S. 127–140. Controlled mood induction enables us to better know, understand and manage our emotions. For this reason, much effort has been made in emotion research to create systems that artificially elicit emotional changes. Numerous Mood Induction Procedures (MIPs) have been developed to generate positive, negative and neutral mood states (see [ 4, 5] for a revision, [ 6]). Some procedures use autobiographical information, such as autobiographical memories [ 7, 8], while other procedures use written texts, such as Velten MIP [ 9] and the reading of fragments of books [ 10]. A number of procedures use acoustic stimuli, such as imagination MIPs e.g., [ 11, 12], the International Affective Digitized Sound System (IADS [ 13]) and music MIPs (e.g., [ 14]). Pictures are used in others procedures, such as the International Affective Pictures System (IAPS [ 15]). Procedures have also been implemented involving the manipulation of the expression, thought or behavior of the participants, for example, the Facial Action Coding System FACS [ 16] and social interaction of success or failure [ 17, 18]. Finally, audiovisual materials, such as virtual reality [ 19, 20] and films [ 21], have been utilized in certain procedures. Voswinkel, Stephan/ Anna Korzekwa (2004): Dienstleistungsarbeit und Anerkennung. Arbeiten im Kundenkontakt und die Servicekulturdebatte. Forschungsbericht. Frankfurt a.M.: Institut für Sozialforschung.

Ortony, A., Norman, D. A., & Revelle, W. (2005). “Affect and proto-affect in effective functioning”. Who needs emotions, 173-202. Wegener DT, Petty RE. Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1994; 66: 1034–48. pmid:8046576 Fajula C, Bonin-Guillaume S, Jouve E, Blin O. Emotional reactivity assessment of healthy elderly with an emotion-induction procedure. Exp Aging Res. 2013; 39: 109–24. pmid:23316739An event-related fMRI study examined the neural correlates of responses to emotional pictures and words in which both were manipulated in terms of positive and negative valence, and where neutral emotional content served as a baseline (“conditioned stimuli”/no activating emotion with valence rating of 5 that spans between 1/negative valence-9/positive valence), even though all stimuli were consistent in terms of arousal levels ( Kensinger and Schacter, 2006). Subjects were instructed to rate each stimulus as animate or inanimate and common or uncommon. The results revealed the activation of the amygdala in response to positive and negative valence (valence-independent) for pictures and words. A lateralization effect was observed in the amygdala when processing different emotional stimuli types. The left amygdala responded to words while either the right and/or bilateral amygdala activation regions responded to pictures. In addition, participants were more sensitive to emotional pictures than to emotional words. The mPFC responded more rigorously during the processing of positive than to that of negative stimuli, while the VLPFC responded more to negative stimuli. The researchers concluded that arousal-related responses occur in the amygdala, dmPFC, vmPFC, anterior temporal lobe and temporo-occipital junction, whereas valence-dependent responses were associated with the lateral PFC for negative stimuli and the mPFC for positive stimuli. The lateralization of the amygdala’s activation was consistent with that in other studies that also showed left-lateralized amygdala responses for words ( Hamann and Mao, 2002) vs. right-lateralized amygdala responses for images ( Pegna et al., 2005). However, a wide range of studies suggest that lateralization likely differs with sex ( Hamann, 2005), individual personality ( Hamann and Canli, 2004), mood ( Rusting, 1998), age ( Allard and Kensinger, 2014), sleep ( Walker, 2009), subject’s awareness of stimuli ( Morris et al., 1998), stress ( Payne et al., 2007) and other variables. Hence, these factors should be considered in future studies. Palfai T. P., & Salovey P. The influence of depressed and elated mood on deductive and inductive reasoning. Imagin Cogn Pers. 1993–1994; 13: 57–71.

Event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to investigate the modality effects deriving from emotional words and facial expressions as stimuli in healthy, native German speakers ( Schacht and Sommer, 2009a). German verbs or pseudo-words associated with positive, negative or neutral emotions were used, in addition to happy vs. angry faces, as well as neutral and slightly distorted faces. The results revealed that negative posterior ERPs were evoked in the temporo-parieto-occipital regions, while enhanced positive ERPs were evoked in the fronto-central regions (positive verbs and happy faces) when compared with neutral and negative stimuli. These findings were in agreement with the previous findings ( Schupp et al., 2003; Schacht and Sommer, 2009b). While the same neuronal mechanisms appear to be involved in response to both emotional stimuli types, latency differences were also reported with faster responses to facial stimuli than to words, likely owing to more direct access to neural circuits-approximately 130 ms for happy faces compared to 380 ms for positive verbs ( Schacht and Sommer, 2009a). Moreover, augmented responses observed in the later positive complex (LPP), i.e., larger late positive waves in response to emotional verbs (both positive and negative) and angry faces, all associated with the increased motivational significance of emotional stimuli ( Schupp et al., 2000) and increased selective attention to pictures ( Kok, 2000). In their work titled “The role of affect and proto-affect in effective functioning” (2004), researchers and prominent usability experts Don Norman, Andrew Ortony, and William Revelle paved the way towards one of the most well-known approaches to emotion and design. Their three-level model of emotional design offers a new perspective when assessing and considering the design process. Norman et al.'s model emphasizes the importance of emotion to the user experience—taking the less well-trodden route of focusing on how the user feels when interacting with a product, as opposed to the usability considerations, which tend to dominate our thinking. Each of the layers of this model refers to a particular type of processing, and for each of these tiers or levels there is a corresponding area of design. Here, we shall concentrate on the highest tier of the emotional design model: reflective processing.The impact of emotion on learning processes is the focus of many current studies. Although it is well established that emotions influence memory retention and recall, in terms of learning, the question of emotional impacts remains questionable. Some studies report that positive emotions facilitate learning and contribute to academic achievement, being mediated by the levels of self-motivation and satisfaction with learning materials ( Um et al., 2012). Conversely, a recent study reported that negative learning-centered state (confusion) improve learning because of an increased focus of attention on learning material that leads to higher performances on post tests and transfer tests ( D’Mello et al., 2014). Confusion is not an emotion but a cognitive disequilibrium state induced by contradictory data. A confused student might be frustrated with their poor understanding of subject matter, and this is related to both the SEEKING and RAGE systems, with a low-level of activation of rage or irritation, and amplification of SEEKING. Hence, motivated students who respond to their confusion seek new understanding by doing additional cognitive work. Further clarification of this enhances learning. Moreover, stress, a negative emotional state, has also been reported to facilitate and/or impair both learning and memory, depending on intensity and duration ( Vogel and Schwabe, 2016). More specifically, mild and acute stress facilitates learning and cognitive performance, while excess and chronic stress impairs learning and is detrimental to memory performance. Many other negative consequences attend owing to overactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which results in both impaired synaptic plasticity and learning ability ( Joëls et al., 2004). Nonetheless, confounding influences of emotions on learning and memory can be explained in terms of attentional and motivational components. Attentional components enhance perceptual processing, which then helps to select and organize salient information via a “bottom-up” approach to higher brain functions and awareness ( Vuilleumier, 2005). Motivational components induce curiosity, which is a state associated with psychological interest in novel and/or surprising activities (stimuli). A curiosity state encourages further exploration and apparently prepares the brain to learn and remember in both children and adults ( Oudeyer et al., 2016). The term “surprising” might be conceptualized as an incongruous situation (expectancy violation) refers to a discrepancy between prior expectations and the new information; it may drive a cognitive reset for “learned content” that draws one’s attention. Left VLPFC supports mnemonic control (i.e., task switching, WM and semantic retrieval), and supports access to stored conceptual representations ( Badre and Wagner, 2007). Harmon-Jones E, Amodio DM, Zinner LR. Social psychological methods of emotion elicitation. In: Allen JACJJB, editor. Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment. Series in affective science. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2007. p. 91–105.