a b Doyle White, Ethan (2016). Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Liverpool University Press. pp.1–9, 73. ISBN 978-1-84519-754-4. a b Hutton, Ronald, The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, Oxford University Press, 1999. [ ISBNmissing] Historically, the Christian concept of witchcraft derives from Old Testament laws against it. In medieval and early modern Europe, many Christians believed in magic. As opposed to the helpful magic of the cunning folk, witchcraft was seen as evil and associated with Satan and Devil worship. This often resulted in deaths, torture and scapegoating (casting blame for misfortune), [68] [41] :9–12 and many years of large scale witch-trials and witch hunts, especially in Protestant Europe, before largely ending during the Age of Enlightenment. Christian views in the modern day are diverse, ranging from intense belief and opposition (especially by Christian fundamentalists) to non-belief. During the Age of Colonialism, many cultures were exposed to the Western world via colonialism, usually accompanied by intensive Christian missionary activity (see Christianization). In these cultures, beliefs about witchcraft were partly influenced by the prevailing Western concepts of the time. a b "Diabolism in the New World". ABCCLIO. 2005. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021 . Retrieved 10 February 2013.

World Report on Violence and Health" (PDF). World Health Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2014 . Retrieved 7 June 2014. The historical record from that time is limited, and our understanding of these events can be influenced by the perspectives of the Confucian scholars and officials who documented them. As a result, there might be some variations in the interpretation of the exact nature and extent of the expulsion of shamans and other religious practitioners during Emperor Wu's reign. [64] Abrahamic religions [ edit ]Societies that believed in witchcraft also believed that it could be thwarted in various ways. One common way was to use protective magic or counter-magic, of which the cunning folk were experts. [1] :24-25 This included charms, talismans and amulets, anti- witch marks, witch bottles, witch balls, and burying objects such as horse skulls inside the walls of buildings. [42] Another believed cure for bewitchment was to persuade or force the alleged witch to lift their spell. [1] :24-25 Often, people would attempt to thwart the witchcraft by physically punishing the alleged witch, such as by banishing, wounding, torturing or killing them. "In most societies, however, a formal and legal remedy was preferred to this sort of private action", whereby the alleged witch would be prosecuted and then formally punished if found guilty. [1] :24-25 This often resulted in execution. Asian witchcraft encompasses various types of witchcraft practices across Asia. In ancient times, magic played a significant role in societies such as ancient Egypt and Babylonia, as evidenced by historical records. In the Middle East, references to magic can be found in the Torah, where witchcraft is condemned due to its association with belief in magic. Social stigma as an epidemiological determinant for leprosy elimination in Cameroon". Journal of Public Health in Africa. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2014. Witchcraft-related violence is often discussed as a serious issue in the broader context of violence against women. [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] In Tanzania, about 500 old women are murdered each year following accusations of witchcraft or accusations of being a witch. [52]

Ginzburg, Carlo; Translated by Raymond Rosenthal (2004) [Originally published in Italy as Storia Notturna (1989 Giulio Einaudi)]. Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches' Sabbath. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226296937. During the 20th century, interest in witchcraft rose in English-speaking and European countries. From the 1920s, Margaret Murray popularized the ' witch-cult hypothesis': the idea that those persecuted as 'witches' in early modern Europe were followers of a benevolent pagan religion that had survived the Christianization of Europe. This has been discredited by further historical research. [24] :45–47, 84–85 [1] :121 [80] [81] [82] Kanina, Wangui (21 May 2008). "Mob burns to death 11 Kenyan "witches" ". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2016.

Oral Traditions of the Hedge Witch

Meaney, Audrey L. (December 1984). "Æfric and Idolatry". Journal of Religious History. 13 (2): 119–135. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9809.1984.tb00191.x. a b c Lawrence, Salmah Eva-Lina (2015). "Witchcraft, Sorcery, Violence: Matrilineal and Decolonial Reflections". In Forsyth, Miranda; Eves, Richard (eds.). Talking it Through: Responses to Sorcery and Witchcraft Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia. Canberra, Australia: ANU Press.