Thauer, R. K. (1998). "Biochemistry of methanogenesis: a tribute to Marjory Stephenson:1998 Marjory Stephenson Prize Lecture". Microbiology. 144 (9): 2377–2406. doi: 10.1099/00221287-144-9-2377. PMID 9782487. Zhao, F.; Hawkesford, M. J.; McGrath, S. P. (1999). "Sulphur Assimilation and Effects on Yield and Quality of Wheat". Journal of Cereal Science. 30 (1): 1–17. doi: 10.1006/jcrs.1998.0241. As a result of its very low Lewis basicity, it is often used as a low-temperature solvent/diluent for superacids like magic acid (FSO 3H/SbF 5), allowing for highly reactive species like tert-butyl cation to be observed spectroscopically at low temperature (though tertiary carbocations do react with SO 2 above about –30°C, and even less reactive solvents like SO 2ClF must be used at these higher temperatures). [39] As a refrigerant [ edit ]

a b Mohamed, Abdel-Mohsen Onsy; El-Gamal, Maisa M. (2010). Sulfur concrete for the construction industry: a sustainable development approach. Fort Lauderdale: J. Ross. pp.104–105, 109. ISBN 978-1-60427-005-1. OCLC 531718953. a b c Schreiner, Bernhard (2008). "Der Claus-Prozess. Reich an Jahren und bedeutender denn je". Chemie in unserer Zeit. 42 (6): 378–392. doi: 10.1002/ciuz.200800461. Sulfur forms over 30 solid allotropes, more than any other element. [16] Besides S 8, several other rings are known. [17] Removing one atom from the crown gives S 7, which is more of a deep yellow than the S 8. HPLC analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S 8, but with S 7 and small amounts of S 6. [18] Larger rings have been prepared, including S 12 and S 18. [19] [20] Very alkaline soils will need very heavy doses of sulphur. If free lime or chalk is present, the soil cannot realistically be acidified. You can test for free lime or carbonate by adding vinegar to a soil sample. If ‘fizzing’ is seen, then free calcium carbonate is present. To reduce the pH of the top 15cm (6in) of soil from neutral (pH 7.0), or slightly alkaline (pH 7.5), to slightly acid (pH 6.0-pH 6.5) sulphur powder may be required at 135-270g per sq m (4-8oz per sq yd), depending on whether the soil is sandy (lower figure) or clay (higher figure).Ferrous sulphate may be required at 1080-2160gper sq m (32-63 oz per sq yd), depending on whether the soil is sandy (lower figure) or clay (higher figure).

The ‘Sulphur’ Constitution

In terms of electron-counting formalism, the sulfur atom has an oxidation state of +4 and a formal charge of +1.

Rutenberg, M. W.; Horning, E. C. (1950). "1-Methyl-3-ethyloxindole". Organic Syntheses. 30: 62. doi: 10.15227/orgsyn.030.0062. It was shown that in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension due to congenital heart diseases the level of homocysteine is higher and the level of endogenous sulfur dioxide is lower than in normal control children. Moreover, these biochemical parameters strongly correlated to the severity of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Authors considered homocysteine to be one of useful biochemical markers of disease severity and sulfur dioxide metabolism to be one of potential therapeutic targets in those patients. [34]

Endogenous sulfur dioxide also has been shown to lower the proliferation rate of endothelial smooth muscle cells in blood vessels, via lowering the MAPK activity and activating adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A. [35] Smooth muscle cell proliferation is one of important mechanisms of hypertensive remodeling of blood vessels and their stenosis, so it is an important pathogenetic mechanism in arterial hypertension and atherosclerosis. Poirier, Jean-Pierre (1998). Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.107–8. ISBN 978-0-8122-1649-3. Waksman, S. A.; Starkey, R. L. (20 January 1923). "On the Growth and Respiration of Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria". The Journal of General Physiology. 5 (3): 285–310. doi: 10.1085/jgp.5.3.285. ISSN 0022-1295. PMC 2140527. PMID 19871997. Ceccotti, S. P. (1996). "Plant nutrient sulphur-a review of nutrient balance, environmental impact and fertilizers". Fertilizer Research. 43 (1–3): 117–125. doi: 10.1007/BF00747690. S2CID 42207099. Jones, Galen E.; Starkey, Robert L.; Feely, Herbert W.; Kulp, J. Laurence (22 June 1956). "Biological Origin of Native Sulfur in Salt Domes of Texas and Louisiana". Science. 123 (3208): 1124–1125. Bibcode: 1956Sci...123.1124J. doi: 10.1126/science.123.3208.1124. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17793426.

Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and stibnite (antimony sulfide); and the sulfate minerals, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite (barium sulfate). On Earth, just as upon Jupiter's moon Io, elemental sulfur occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, including emissions from hydrothermal vents. In the beginning of the 20th century, sulfur dioxide was used in Buenos Aires as a fumigant to kill rats that carried the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which causes bubonic plague. The application was successful, and the application of this method was extended to other areas in South America. In Buenos Aires, where these apparatuses were known as Sulfurozador, but later also in Rio de Janeiro, New Orleans and San Francisco, the sulfur dioxide treatment machines were brought into the streets to enable extensive disinfection campaigns, with effective results. [31] Biochemical and biomedical roles [ edit ] In 2010, the United States produced more sulfuric acid than any other inorganic industrial chemical. [81] The principal use for the acid is the extraction of phosphate ores for the production of fertilizer manufacturing. Other applications of sulfuric acid include oil refining, wastewater processing, and mineral extraction. [39] Other important sulfur chemistry [ edit ]

Medical Definition

a b c Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nded.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp.645–665. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. As an ice, it is thought to exist in abundance on the Galilean moons—as subliming ice or frost on the trailing hemisphere of Io, [15] and in the crust and mantle of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, possibly also in liquid form and readily reacting with water. [16] Production [ edit ] S 7, and S 8 at Ambient Temperatures". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 104 (18): 4971–4972. doi: 10.1021/ja00382a050.

Paytan, Adina; Yao, Weiqi; Faul, Kristina; Gray, E.T. (2020). "Sulfur Isotope Stratigraphy". Geologic Time Scale. pp.259–278. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-824360-2.00009-7. ISBN 9780128243602. Cameron, A. G. W. (1957). "Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis" (PDF). CRL-41. While the plants' role in transferring sulfur to animals by food chains is more or less understood, the role of sulfur bacteria is just getting investigated. [106] [107] Protein and organic metabolites [ edit ] Being abundantly available in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times and is referred to in the Torah ( Genesis). English translations of the Christian Bible commonly referred to burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the term " fire-and-brimstone" sermons, in which listeners are reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible [50] that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur" (likely due to its association with volcanic activity). According to the Ebers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids. Sulfur was used for fumigation in preclassical Greece; [51] this is mentioned in the Odyssey. [52] Pliny the Elder discusses sulfur in book 35 of his Natural History, saying that its best-known source is the island of Melos. He mentions its use for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth. [53]Acid rain was caused by the emission of sulphur dioxide from power stations, which became sulphuric acid in the atmosphere. [ Independent] In the 1880s, while studying Beggiatoa (a bacterium living in a sulfur rich environment), Sergei Winogradsky found that it oxidized hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) as an energy source, forming intracellular sulfur droplets. Winogradsky referred to this form of metabolism as inorgoxidation (oxidation of inorganic compounds). [97] Another contributor, who continued to study it was Selman Waksman. [98] Primitive bacteria that live around deep ocean volcanic vents oxidize hydrogen sulfide for their nutrition, as discovered by Robert Ballard. [8] Rettig, S. J.; Trotter, J. (15 December 1987). "Refinement of the structure of orthorhombic sulfur, α-S8" (PDF). Acta Crystallographica Section C. 43 (12): 2260–2262. doi: 10.1107/S0108270187088152. Thomson, D. W. (April 1995). "Prelude to the Sulphur War of 1840: The Neapolitan Perspective". European History Quarterly. 25 (2): 163–180. doi: 10.1177/026569149502500201. S2CID 145807900.