World Commission on Environment and Development Our Common Future (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1987). Human-animal interactions activate the oxytocinergic system, resulting in decreased social stress and endocrinological, psychophysiological, and psychosocial effects [ 229]. Oxytocin is produced by stroking [ 230, 231], and an increase in plasma oxytocin was found in humans after 5–24 min of petting [ 232, 233]. Oxytocin is found to increase social interaction [ 234], decrease stress [ 235, 236, 237], lower pain thresholds, produce anti-inflammatory effects [ 238, 239], lower anxiety [ 240], and increase the function of the parasympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased digestive function [ 241, 242]. Oxytocin may therefore be an important factor in the nature benefits received from touch. Barton, J., & Pretty, J. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environ Sci Technol Many benefits that people receive from nature accrue through the five senses as well as at least three non-sensory avenues: sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, phytoncides, negative air ions, and microbes. Most research focuses on the visual nature benefits, and we have briefly reviewed this as well as examining the other pathways through which nature benefits are delivered, concluding that there is a need to broaden work beyond merely the visual sense and to take some experimental studies into the field. The idea that nature provides benefits beyond the visual has been touched on in the literature looking at some mood benefits derived from feeling connected to nature; this suggests that feeling connected to nature is enough to provide some psychological benefits [ 346, 347]. We do not explore this at length here, but this alternate route should not be overlooked. Additionally, there is clear evidence of the benefits of exercising in greenspace or in simulated nature beyond that of exercising in other environments, implying that there may be another pathway involved here, although we do not yet know whether this is through the senses [ 348, 349, 350]. Tachimoto, N. in Global Humanics of the Environment (ed. Tachimoto, N.) RIHN Working Paper No. 1; 5–10 (RIHN, Kyoto, 2008).

Nature sounds have been used therapeutically to relieve stress [ 49, 51, 52], and perceived restoration and attention recovery have shown positive reactions to birdsong [ 53]. A virtual reality forest including sound was found to improve stress recovery more than the same forest without sound, implying that the sympathetic nervous system shows increased recovery with nature sounds [ 54]. A zoo exhibit including rainforest sounds was rated as more pleasant than the same exhibit without sounds [ 55], and natural sounds have also been found to decrease self-reported anxiety and agitation [ 56]. Park, J., Conca, K. & Finger, M. The Crisis of Global Environmental Governance: Towards a New Political Economy of Sustainability (Routledge, London, 2008). We define nature in a broad sense as “the phenomena of the physical world collectively, including plants, animals, the landscape, and other features and products of the earth, as opposed to humans or human creations” [ 15]. We consider nature to include phenomena as varied as landscapes, microorganisms, and pets, and we also include nature simulations. We consider health as “the state of being free from illness or injury”, and as a statement about one’s mental or physical condition [ 15]. Finally, we define wellbeing as “the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy” [ 15], and including self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others [ 16]. It further includes the important domains of mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances [ 17]. Therefore wellbeing is a very broad category encompassing concepts as varied as “freedom from noise” and “memory recall”. As in the case of rotten meat and the disgust response to the smell, smells can provide us with useful information about the environment, or specific resources or organisms within it. In a study on humans, it was found that men and women could identify whether individuals were happy or fearful based on odor pads used to collect their sweat [ 101]. Natural odors from plants and animals such as floral fragrance and musk, are indicative of metabolism and physiological function [ 102], so smells can tell us about the state of possible food.Lau, S.S.Y., Gou, Z., Liu, Y., (2014). Healthy camps by open space design: approach and guideline. Front Archit Res 3:452–467 Noise pollution has become an increasing public complaint in the last decade [ 67], and some 80 million Europeans live with unacceptably high urban noise levels [ 68]. Chronic noise contributes to stress, annoyance, cardiovascular problems, sleep disturbance, and decreased task performance [ 69, 70, 71]. It has both psychological and physical effects ranging from elevated blood pressure, poor sustained attention, and memory problems to sleep disturbances, increased risk of myocardial infarction, annoyance, and learned helplessness [ 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. These effects can occur below our level of awareness [ 79]. Soderlund, J., Newman, P. (2015). Biophilic architecture: a review of the rationale and outcomes. AIMS Environ Sci. 2(4):950–969 How does it work? What lies behind the power of environments that not only attract and are appreciated by people but are apparently able to restore hassled individuals to healthy and effective functioning?

Renn, J. & Laubichler, M. in Integrated History and Philosophy of Science (ed. Stadler, F.) 109–125 (Vienna Circle Institute Yearbook Vol. 20, Springer, 2017). Some studies suggest that awe may be able to increase our critical cognitive skills. One study found that when people were induced to feel awe, they were less persuaded by weak arguments than people who did a neutral activity (imagining doing their laundry). Descola, P. Prof. Philippe Descola: winner of the 2012 CNRS Golden Medal. College de France Newsletter (July, 2015).

The Experience of Nature is, at last, such a volume. It establishes a basic understanding of nature experiences from window box to wilderness.

Chang P. J., Bae, S. (2017). Positive emotional effects of leisure in green spaces in alleviating workefamily spillover in working mothers. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 14:757Foster, J. The Sustainability Mirage: Illusion and Reality in the Coming War on Climate Change (Earthscan, London, 2008).