the High Arctic islands of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, Canada and western Greenland (except for the southwestern region) The late Valerius Geist (1998) [14] dates the Eurasian reindeer radiation dates to the large Riss glaciation (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), based on the Norwegian-Svalbard split 225,000 years ago. [60] Finnish forest reindeer ( R. t. fennicus) likely evolved from Cervus [Rangifer] geuttardi Desmarest, 1822, a reindeer that adapted to forest habitats in Eastern Europe as forests expanded during an interglacial period before the LGM (the Würmian or Weichsel glaciation);. [56] The fossil species geuttardi was later replaced by R. constantini, which was adapted for grasslands, [61] in a second immigration 19,000–20,000 years ago when the LGM turned its forest habitats into tundra, while fennicus survived in isolation in southwestern Europe. [56] R. constantini was then replaced by modern tundra/barren-ground caribou adapted to extreme cold, probably in Beringia, before dispersing west ( R. t. tarandus in the Scandinavian mountains and R. t. sibiricus across Siberia) and east ( R. t. arcticus in the North American Barrenlands) when rising seas isolated them. Likewise in North America, DNA analysis shows that woodland caribou ( R. caribou) diverged from primitive ancestors of tundra/barren-ground caribou not during the LGM, 26,000–19,000 years ago, as previously assumed, but in the Middle Pleistocene around 357,000 years ago. [62] [63] At that time, modern tundra caribou had not even evolved. Woodland caribou are likely more related to extinct North American forest caribou than to barren-ground caribou. For example, the extinct caribou Torontoceros [Rangifer] hypogaeus, had features (robust and short pedicles, smooth antler surface, and high position of second tine) that relate it to forest caribou. [64] As an old-school almost remake of Tempest, Space Giraffe has players fly down a corridor level blasting enemies into the void, all the time avoiding being hit by an oncoming vessel.

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a b c d e Mizin, I.A. (2018) The current state of the wild reindeer in Russia - general overview of the situation. Barents The "glacial-interglacial cycles of the upper Pleistocene had a major influence on the evolution" of Rangifer species and other Arctic and sub-Arctic species. Isolation of tundra-adapted species Rangifer in Last Glacial Maximum refugia during the last glacial – the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and the Weichselian glaciation in Eurasia – shaped "intraspecific genetic variability" particularly between the North American and Eurasian parts of the Arctic. [5] The reindeer has large feet with crescent-shaped cloven hooves for walking in snow or swamps. According to the Species at Risk Public Registry ( SARA), woodland [130]

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In North America, the Queen Charlotte Islands caribou [199] [29] [28] and the East Greenland caribou both became extinct in the early 20th century, the Peary caribou is designated as Endangered, the boreal woodland caribou is designated as Threatened and some individual populations are endangered as well. While the barren-ground caribou is not designated as Threatened, many individual herds — including some of the largest — are declining and there is much concern at the local level. [200] Grant's caribou, a small, pale subspecies endemic to the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands, [88] has not been assessed as to its conservation status. However, sexual desire is complex and has to do with many more factors than just nutrition, including an individual’s relationships, stress levels, and personal preference. One older study found that zinc might be helpful for treating ED in people with chronic kidney disease. Arctic peoples have depended on caribou for food, clothing, and shelter. European prehistoric cave paintings represent both tundra and forest forms, the latter either the Finnish forest reindeer or the narrow-nosed reindeer, an eastern Siberia forest form. [14] Canadian examples include the Caribou Inuit, the inland-dwelling Inuit of the Kivalliq Region in northern Canada, the Caribou Clan in the Yukon, the Iñupiat, the Inuvialuit, the Hän, the Northern Tutchone, and the Gwichʼin (who followed the Porcupine caribou herd for millennia). Hunting wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and sub-Arctic peoples such as the Duhalar for meat, hides [ de], antlers, milk [ ru], and transportation. [6]

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Davis, S. R., Worsley, R., Miller, K. K., Parish, S. J., & Santoro, N. (2016, February). Androgens and female sexual function and dysfunction – Findings from the Fourth International Consultation of Sexual Medicine [Abstract]. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13(2), 168–178 There are only two genetically pure populations of wild reindeer in Northern Europe: wild mountain reindeer ( R. t. tarandus) that live in central Norway, with a population in 2007 of between 6,000 and 8,400 animals; [222] and wild Finnish forest reindeer ( R. t. fennicus) that live in central and eastern Finland and in Russian Karelia, with a population of about 4,350, plus 1,500 in Arkhangelsk Oblast and 2,500 in Komi. [223] East of Arkhangelsk, both wild Siberian tundra reindeer ( R. t. sibiricus) (some herds are very large) and domestic reindeer ( R. t. domesticus) occur with almost no interbreeding by wild reindeer into domestic clades and none the other way (Kharzinova et al. 2018; [224] Rozhkov et al. 2020 [225]). Reindeer herding has been vital for the subsistence of several Eurasian nomadic indigenous peoples living in the circumpolar Arctic zone such as the Sámi, Nenets, and Komi. [219] Reindeer are used to provide renewable sources and reliable transportation. In Mongolia, the Dukha are known as the reindeer people. They are credited as one of the world's earliest domesticators. The Dukha diet consists mainly of reindeer dairy products. [220] The reindeer is the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on a large scale in the world. Reindeer in northern Fennoscandia (northern Norway, Sweden and Finland) as well in the Kola Peninsula and Yakutia in Russia, are mostly semi-domesticated reindeer, ear-marked by their owners. Some reindeer in the area are truly domesticated, mostly used as draught animals (nowadays commonly for tourist entertainment and races, traditionally important for the nomadic Sámi). Domestic reindeer have also been used for milk, e.g., in Norway.

Boreal woodland caribou were designated as Threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, (COSEWIC). [34] Environment Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34 000 boreal woodland caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada ( Environment Canada, 2011b). [35] "According to Geist, the "woodland caribou is highly endangered throughout its distribution right into Ontario." [7] In 2011, noting that the former classifications of Rangifer tarandus, either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes, or natural population groupings, failed to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective subspecies conservation and management, COSEWIC developed Designatable Unit (DU) attribution, [34] an adaptation of "evolutionary significant units". [78] The 12 designatable units for caribou in Canada (that is, excluding Alaska and Greenland) based on ecology, behavior and, importantly, genetics (but excluding morphology and archaeology) essentially followed the previously-named subspecies distributions, without naming them as such, plus some ecotypes. Ecotypes are not phylogenetically based and cannot substitute for taxonomy. [79] Carl Linnaeus in 1758 named the Eurasian tundra species Cervus tarandus, the genus Rangifer being credited to Smith, 1827. [36] Barassi, A., Corsi Romanelli, M. M., Pezzilli, R., Damele, C. A. L., Vaccalluzzo, L., Goi, G., . . . Melzi d'Eril, G. V. (2017, February 8). Levels of L-arginine and L-citrulline in patients with erectile dysfunction of different etiology. Andrology, 5(2), 256–261 Kurtén, Björn (1968). Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. Transaction Publishers. pp.170–177. ISBN 978-1-4128-4514-4 . Retrieved 6 August 2013.