Stephen Harding; Lee Ann Olivier & Olivera Jokic. "Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse". Archived from the original on May 31, 2007 . Retrieved May 2, 2007. Sawynok J (January 1986). "The therapeutic use of heroin: a review of the pharmacological literature". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 64 (1): 1–6. doi: 10.1139/y86-001. PMID 2420426. Recreational use of opium was part of a civilized and mannered ritual, akin to an East Asian tea ceremony, prior to the extensive prohibitions that came later. [44] In places of gathering, often tea shops, or a person's home servings of opium were offered as a form of greeting and politeness. Often served with tea (in China) and with specific and fine utensils and beautifully carved wooden pipes. The wealthier the smoker, the finer and more expensive material used in ceremony. [44] The image of seedy underground, destitute smokers were often generated by anti-opium narratives and became a more accurate image of opium use following the effects of large scale opium prohibition in the 1880s. [44] Prohibitions in China [ edit ] Great Britain (1913). Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal for regulation of the opium monopolies of the colonies of Hong Kong and Macao. London, Printed for H.M. Stationery office. by Harrison and sons, ltd.

Nye, Gideon (1873). The morning of my life in China: comprising an outline of the history of foreign intercourse from the last year of the regime of honorable East India Company, 1833, to the imprisonment of the foreign community in 1839. In 2021, the International Agency for Research on Cancer concluded that opium is a Group 1 (sufficient evidence) human carcinogen, causing cancers of the larynx, lung, and urinary bladder. [157] Slang terms [ edit ] Other methods of preparation (besides smoking), include processing into regular opium tincture ( tinctura opii), laudanum, paregoric ( tinctura opii camphorata), herbal wine (e.g., vinum opii), opium powder ( pulvis opii), opium sirup ( sirupus opii) and opium extract ( extractum opii). [123] Vinum opii is made by combining sugar, white wine, cinnamon, and cloves. Opium syrup is made by combining 97.5 part sugar syrup with 2.5 parts opium extract. Opium extract ( extractum opii) finally can be made by macerating raw opium with water. To make opium extract, 20 parts water are combined with 1 part raw opium which has been boiled for 5 minutes (the latter to ease mixing). [123] Morimoto, Satoshi; Kazunari Suemori; Jun Moriwaki; Futoshi Taura; Hiroyuki Tanaka; Mariko Aso; Masakazu Tanaka; Hiroshi Suemune; Yasuyuki Shimohigashi; Yukihiro Shoyama; etal. (October 12, 2001). "Morphine Metabolism in the Opium Poppy and Its Possible Physiological Function". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (41): 38179–38184. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M107105200. PMID 11498543. Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early 19th century. However, by 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold. [47]

Paul Harris in Peshawar (November 25, 2001). "Victorious warlords set to open the opium floodgates". London: Observer.guardian.co.uk . Retrieved March 21, 2010. A little of it, taken as much as a grain of ervum is a pain-easer, and a sleep-causer, and a digester...but being drank too much it hurts, making men lethargical, and it kills. Opium – Poppy Cultivation, Morphine and Heroin Manufacture". Erowid.org . Retrieved January 25, 2017.

Ms Louise Foxcroft (June 28, 2013). The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp.66–. ISBN 978-1-4094-7984-0.William Travis Hanes; Frank Sanello (2004). Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another. Sourcebooks, Inc. pp.78–. ISBN 978-1-4022-0149-3. Huxtable Ryan J.; Schwartz Stephen K. W. (2001). "The Isolation of Morphine—First Principles in Science and Ethics". Molecular Interventions. 1 (4): 189–191. PMID 14993340. In the industrialized world, the United States is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy being one of the lowest, because of tighter regulations on prescribing narcotics for pain relief. [146] Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with unrefined opium.

The renowned Andalusian ophthalmologic surgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi ("Abulcasis", 936–1013 CE) relied on opium and mandrake as surgical anesthetics and wrote a treatise, al-Tasrif, that influenced medical thought well into the 16th century. [23]Alper KR, Lotsof HS, Kaplan CD (January 2008). "The ibogaine medical subculture". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 115 (1): 9–24. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.034. PMID 18029124. Opium Factories of Bihar – Bihargatha". Bihargatha.in. Archived from the original on September 10, 2011 . Retrieved October 7, 2011.

Dr Roland Quinault; Dr Ruth Clayton Windscheffel; Mr Roger Swift (July 28, 2013). William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp.238–. ISBN 978-1-4094-8327-4. Heroin, the first semi-synthetic opioid, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann at the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. Because the lethal dose of heroin was viewed as a hundred times greater than its effective dose, heroin was advertised as a safer alternative to other opioids. [104] By 1902, sales made up 5 percent of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention. [105] Oxycodone, a thebaine derivative similar to codeine, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Preparations of the drug such as oxycodone with paracetamol and extended release oxycodone remain popular to this day. [ citation needed]

Hubble D (October 1957). "Opium Addiction and English Literature". Medical History. 1 (4): 323–35. doi: 10.1017/s0025727300021505. PMC 1034310. PMID 13476921. Smith RD (October 1980). "Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: a millennial tribute". The Western Journal of Medicine. 133 (4): 367–70. PMC 1272342. PMID 7051568.