The fate of Western Rome was partially sealed in the late third century, when Emperor Diocletian divided the Empire into two halves—the Western Empire seated in the city of Milan, and the Eastern Empire in Byzantium, later known as Constantinople. The division made the empire more easily governable in the short term, but over time the two halves drifted apart. East and West failed to adequately work together to combat outside threats, and the two often squabbled over resources and military aid. The Rise & Fall is the fourth studio album by English ska band Madness, released on 8 October 1982 by Stiff Records. [1] This album saw Madness at their most experimental, exhibiting a range of musical styles including jazz, English music hall, and Eastern influences. NME described it at the time of its release as "the best Madness record". It has often been retrospectively described as a concept album. Remijsen, Sofie (2015). The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p.49. Alföldy, Géza (2001). "Urban life, inscriptions, and mentality in late antique Rome". In Burns, Thomas S.; Eadie, John W. (eds.). Urban Centers and Rural Contexts in Late Antiquity. Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-870-13585-9. a b c Rebenich, Stefan (2012). "6 Late Antiquity in Modern Eyes". In Rousseau, Philip (ed.). A Companion to Late Antiquity. John Wiley & Sons. p.78. ISBN 978-1118293478.

James, Edward (2014). Europe's Barbarians, AD 200–600. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-58277-296-0.

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Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1973. "La caduta senza rumore di un impero nel 476 d.C." ("The noiseless fall of an empire in 476 AD"). Rivista storica italiana, 85 (1973), 5–21.

The Vandals conquered Sicily. Their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade, and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean. [260] 455–456: Failure of Avitus, further losses in Gaul, rise of Ricimer The wealth of the Christian Church increased dramatically in the fifth century. Immense resources, both public and private, were used for building churches, storage barns for the grain used for charity, new hospitals for the poor, and in support of those in religious life without other income. [76] Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer patronage in the long-established manner of Roman aristocrats. Ammianus described some who "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings".

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Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support. He gained acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession. [261] Avitus's son-in-law Sidonius Apollinaris wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. [262] Theoderic's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, [263] and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother-in-law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities. [262] The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhône valley, while the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. [264] In 456, the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy. Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships. Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus, and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later. [265] 457–467: Resurgence under Majorian, attempt to recover Africa, control by Ricimer During his four-year reign Majorian reconquered most of Hispania and southern Gaul, meanwhile reducing the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suevi to federate status. Piganiol, André (1950). "The Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire". The Journal of General Education. 5 (1): 62–69. JSTOR 27795332. Reynolds, Julian (2011). Defending Rome: The Masters of the Soldiers. Xlibris Corporation. p.206. ISBN 978-1-4771-6460-0. [...] the traditional Roman policy of receptio or recruiting barbarians as needed [...] The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. [137] Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa. He strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. [155] In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any " laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran" or any other person liable to serve. [156] He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. [157] Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; [b] the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army. Demandt, Alexander. 210 Theories. Archived from the original on 2017-11-13 . Retrieved 2018-11-22. , quoting Demandt, A. (1984). Der Fall Roms. p.695.

Gibbon, Edward (1782). History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman. 1845 (Revised) (published 2008). Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. a b c Hunt, David (1998). "2, Julian". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). Cambridge Ancient History, volume 13. Cambridge University Press. Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. [107] [108] These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust—between 379 and 380, Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum. [109] Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. (In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople. That war had ended with the near-extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each supposed to have more than 100,000 warriors. [110])

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Lavan, Luke & Michael Mulryan, eds. (2011). The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism' . Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-19237-9. It compares badly, not only with Shell and TotalEnergies, but also with ExxonMobil, Chevron and ConocoPhilips,” said veteran oil analyst Paul Sankey of Sankey Research. “Losing one chief executive is OK, losing two is awkward, losing three is like ‘what the hell’s going on?’” a b Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Madness Presents the Rise & Fall – Madness". AllMusic . Retrieved 16 September 2018. Gibbon, Edward (1906). "XX". In Bury, J.B. (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol.3. Fred de Fau and Co.