Partly as a reaction to the religious conflicts. a new intellectual movement is now discernible in Europe, This is the Enlightenment, which emphasises rationality as the basis for the pursuit of truth rather then beliefs received from religious institutions or royal governments. February 17, 2008 - The Republic of Kosovo declares independence from Serbia. Its independence is only partly recognized. A series of fierce wars of religion have raged between these Protestant and Catholic nations, culminating in the terrible Thirty Years War (1618-1648). This map shows the history of Europe in 500 CE. The Roman Empire survives in the east, but the western provinces have fallen to a group of German tribes. The Roman Empire in decline On the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean Sea – of Greece and the Aegean, Italy and Sicily, the southern coasts of France and Spain, and north Africa– hundreds of city-states now flourish. The driving force behind this is the colonising activities of the Greeks.

September 30, 2022 - Russia annexes four regions from southeast Ukraine. This action is only partly recognized, and Russia did not control all the land. [1] In the second half of the 13 th century the Mongol empire divided into several branches, with the Mongols of the western steppes becoming known as the Golden Horde. The khan of the Golden Horde continues as overlord of the Russian princes. Since the mid-14 th century the princes of Muscovy have acted as intermediaries between the khan and the other princes, and by the mid-15 th century they have established themselves as the effective leaders of Russia. Spain has been conquered by the vast Muslim Caliphate. The Christians hang on only in the mountainous north. The Byzantine empire Russian expansionism in the Far East leads to the Russo- Japanese war of 1904. This is disastrous for Russia, which is defeated by Japanese nerve and technical superiority. The defeat of giant Russia at the hands of tiny Japan is a national humiliation, and is followed by industrial strikes, peasant unrest, and mutinies in the army and navy. Demands for large-scale reform come from all quarters. A parliament, the Duma, is called, but it can only discuss problems, not legislate. The revolutionary activity of 1905 is followed by a period of repression. Under the ministry of Peter Stolypin, some much-needed reforms are carried out, including land reform to aid the newly-freed peasants, and a dramatic expansion of the education system. Stolypin is assassinated in 1911. Janssen, F. (2020). Changing contribution of smoking to the sex differences in life expectancy in Europe, 1950–2014. European Journal of Epidemiology, 35(9), 835–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-020-00602-x

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This map shows the history of Europe in 200 CE. The Roman empire has given 200 years of peace to a large part of Europe. Pax Romana These centuries have seen Roman civilization reach its peak. The Roman empire has brought long-lasting peace to this vast region and its fifty-million or so inhabitants. With the peace, commerce has expanded and cities have prospered. Romanization – the spread of Roman citizenship, culture and language, has continued apace, and the descendants of Spanish and Gallic chieftains have entered the highest ranks of Roman society. Gathering clouds May 30, 1913 - Treaty of London is signed and the last of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans is conquered by the combined forces of the Balkan League The nobility use this power, not only to resist invaders and brigands, but royal officials as well. Rulers are therefore forced to come to terms with them if they are to exercise any leadership at all, and the feudal system – essentially a way of co-ordinating the military capabilities of a region at a time of fragmented authority – is gradually emerging. The expansion of Christendom

In 1848, Nicholas utterly opposed the liberal revolutions in western Europe, and sent in troops to neighbouring Hungary to help the Austrians stamp out the revolution there. A cultural movement which later historians will call the “ Italian Renaissance” is now under way. As well as producing beautiful new art and architecture, this will lead to a transformation of European thinking by challenging many of the basic assumptions of medieval philosophy. The first European printing presses will soon be spreading new knowledge and new ideas across the continent. Economic growth The countries of Europe have continued to wage major wars amongst themselves. France, Holland and Briain compete with each other for overseas empires, while those of Spain and Portugal are in decline. Prussia and Austria jostle for influence in Germany, and Russia‘s presence is increasingly being felt in central and northern Europe. Italy remains weak and divided, while the Ottoman empire still rules the Balkans.During the 4th century a dramatic transformation was set in train when the emperor Constantine (reigned 311-337) converted to Christianity. Under his successors Christianity became the official religion of the empire. Constantine also founded a new imperial capital, Constantinople. The fall of the Roman empire in the west

In these areas of western Europe, urban life and culture is mostly a thing of the past. Economic life is now largely based on huge self-contained estates (the precursors of medieval “manors”); a class of warrior land-owners dominates society. Literacy and education is almost exclusively the preserve of the Christian clergy, and Graeco-Roman learning is preserved only in monasteries. The frontiers of EuropeNew religious cults have been spreading throughout the Roman empire from the East, including Mithraism, Manichaeism, and above all Christianity. The latter’s expansion, beginning in the Jewish homeland of Judaea, has been helped by the presence of many Jewish communities in the cities of the empire, and indeed it started life as a sect within Judaism. By this date, however, it is clearly a religion in its own right, winning converts right around the empire from Jews and non-Jews alike. The past two centuries have seen the Ottoman empire conquer much of central Europe Europe. At the same time, however, explorers have opened up South and North America. to European colonization, and Africa and Asia to European trade. Renaissance, Reformation and Counter Reformation