Support schemes for electricity from renewable sources or ‘renewable electricity’ have been demonstrated to be an effective way of fostering deployment of renewable electricity. If and when Member States decide to implement support schemes, such support should be provided in a form that is as non-distortive as possible for the functioning of electricity markets. To that end, an increasing number of Member States allocate support in a form by means of which support is granted in addition to market revenues and introduce market-based systems to determine the necessary level of support. Together with steps by which to make the market fit for increasing shares of renewable energy, such support is a key element of increasing the market integration of renewable electricity, while taking into account the different capabilities of small and large producers to respond to market signals. a b Wyman, Charles E.; Dale, Bruce E.; Elander, Richard T.; Holtzapple, Mark; Ladisch, Michael R.; Lee, Y. Y. (2005-12-01). "Coordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technologies". Bioresource Technology. 96 (18): 1959–1966. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.01.010. ISSN 0960-8524. PMID 16112483. To create opportunities for reducing the cost of meeting the Union target laid down in this Directive and to give flexibility to Member States to comply with their obligation not to fall below their 2020 national targets after 2020, it is appropriate both to facilitate the consumption in Member States of energy produced from renewable sources in other Member States, and to enable Member States to count energy from renewable sources consumed in other Member States towards their own renewable energy share. For that reason, the Commission should put in place a Union renewable development platform (‘URDP’), enabling trading renewable energy shares between Member States, in addition to bilateral cooperation agreements. The URDP is intended to complement the voluntary opening of support schemes to projects located in other Member States. The agreements between Member States include statistical transfers, joint projects between Member States or joint support schemes. In light of climatic constraints that limit the possibility of consuming certain types of biofuels due to environmental, technical or health concerns, and due to the size and structure of their fuel markets, it is appropriate that Cyprus and Malta, for the purposes of demonstrating compliance with national renewable energy obligations placed on fuel suppliers, be allowed to take into account those inherent limitations.

The Commission should focus the allocation of funds on the reduction of the cost of capital of renewable energy projects since such cost has a material impact on the cost of renewable energy projects and on their competitiveness, as well as on the development of essential infrastructure for an enhanced technically feasible and economically affordable uptake of renewable energy such as transmission and distribution grid infrastructure, intelligent networks and interconnections.Bioethanol: Le contexte (3) Liquid biofuel blending share targets (EC) • 2005: 2 % • 2010: 5.75 % (9 Mt EtOH) • 2020: 10 % (13 Mt EtOH) (% in energy content) • Roadmap may depend upon States, e.g. France • In USA • 2015 : 15 % EtOH in gasoline  90 Mt EtOH (50% corn = 45 Mt !) • 2030 :30 % EtOH in gasoline 160 Mt EtOH European Council, March 8-9, 2007, conclusions: A minimum ratio of 10% biofuels of the total consumption of gasoline and diesel oil for transportation in EU, this target having to be achieved by 2020 in all Member States, at a reasonable cost. This target is justified, if the production has a sustainable feature, if second generation biofuels are on the market and the directive on the quality of biofuels has to be modified accordingly to plan the suitable blending levels. Séminaire Agrocarburants et développement durable – Grenoble, 28-29/01/2008 With the growing importance of self-consumption of renewable electricity, there is a need for a definition of ‘renewables self-consumers’ and of ‘jointly acting renewables self-consumers’. It is also necessary to establish a regulatory framework which would empower renewables self-consumers to generate, consume, store, and sell electricity without facing disproportionate burdens. Citizens living in apartments for example should be able to benefit from consumer empowerment to the same extent as households in single family homes. However, Member States should be allowed to differentiate between individual renewables self-consumers and jointly acting renewables self-consumers due to their different characteristics to the extent that any such differentiation is proportionate and duly justified. The promotion of recycled carbon fuels can contribute towards the policy objectives of energy diversification and decarbonisation of the transport sector where they fulfil the appropriate minimum greenhouse gas emissions savings threshold. It is therefore appropriate to include those fuels in the obligation on fuel supplier, whilst giving Member States the option not to consider those fuels in the obligation if they do not wish to do so. Since those fuels are not renewable, they should not be counted towards the overall Union target for energy from renewable sources.

Popescu CM, Popescu MC, Vasile C (2011) Structural analysis of photodegraded lime wood by means of FT-IR and 2D IR correlation spectroscopy. Int J Biol Macromol 48:667–675Mclean JP, Jin G, Brennan M, Nieuwoudt MK, Harris PJ (2014) Using NIR and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy to rapidly detect compression wood in Pinus radiata. Can J For Res 44:820–830 cellulose is a homopolymer of glucose. It is very poorly soluble in most solvents, so glucose is extracted through chemical and biological breakdown achieved by cellulolytic enzymes. [12] This extraction is made easier by the fact that the strands of cellulose are integrated into, but not covalently attached to the lignin-hemicellulose component. Gall H, Philippe F, Domon JM, Gillet F, Pelloux J, Rayon C (2015) Cell wall metabolism in response to abiotic stress. Plants 4:112–166 Galván-Hernández DM, Lozada-García JA, Flores-Estévez N, Galindo-González J, Vázquez-Torres SM (2015) Altitudinal gradient effect on morphometric variation and leaf symmetry of Platanus mexicana Moric. Rev Chapingo Ser Ciencias For y del Ambient 21:171–183 Principal component analysis (PCA) in a correlation matrix, was carried out using the data matrixes compiled by the dependent variables in analyses (a) and (b). In the correlation matrix, the data were centered and scaled based on the variables means. Variables means that demonstrated high square cosines were considered for the most explanatory principal components (PCs); then, these were singled out for further analysis through one-way ANOVAs and the post hoc Tukey’s honestly significant ( α = 0.05) to test for the significant differences between scores. In all cases, the dependent variables that did not fulfill the assumptions of a normal distribution were transformed into ranks suitable for parametric statistical analysis [ 42]. In addition, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the empirical indexes and some parameters in analyses (a) and (b), separately.

One barrier to the production of ethanol from biomass is that the sugars necessary for fermentation are trapped inside the lignocellulose. Lignocellulose has evolved to resist degradation and to confer hydrolytic stability and structural robustness to the cell walls of the plants. This robustness or "recalcitrance" is attributable to the crosslinking between the polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) and the lignin via ester and ether linkages. [17] Ester linkages arise between oxidized sugars, the uronic acids, and the phenols and phenylpropanols functionalities of the lignin. To extract the fermentable sugars, one must first disconnect the celluloses from the lignin, and then use acid or enzymatic methods to hydrolyze the newly freed celluloses to break them down into simple monosaccharides. Another challenge to biomass fermentation is the high percentage of pentoses in the hemicellulose, such as xylose, or wood sugar. Unlike hexoses such as glucose, pentoses are difficult to ferment. The problems presented by the lignin and hemicellulose fractions are the foci of much contemporary research. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified as virgin biomass, waste biomass, and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes plants. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct of various industrial sectors such as agriculture ( corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straw etc.) and forestry ( saw mill and paper mill discards). Energy crops are crops with a high yield of lignocellulosic biomass produced as a raw material for the production of second-generation biofuel; examples include switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum) and Elephant grass. The biofuels generated from these energy crops are sources of sustainable energy. [7] [8] Chemical composition [ edit ] Xylan is one form of hemicellulose found in hardwood. [9] Hemicellulose Lignine Cellulose Bioéthanol : le contexte (4) Les polymères pariétaux de la biomasse lignocellulosique Séminaire Agrocarburants et développement durable – Grenoble, 28-29/01/2008Pursuant to Article 108 TFEU, the Commission has exclusive competence to assess the compatibility of State aid measures with the internal market which the Member States may put in place for deployment of energy from renewable sources. That assessment is carried out on the basis of Article 107(3) TFEU and in accordance with the relevant provisions and guidelines which the Commission may adopt to that effect. This Directive is without prejudice to the Commission's exclusive competence granted by the TFEU. Kačík F, Šmíra P, Kačíková D, Reinprecht L, Nasswettrova A (2014) Chemical changes in fir wood from old buildings due to ageing. Cellul Chem Technol 48:79–88 Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass Volume I—Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas" (PDF). Ces procédés permettent de convertir la biomasse en différentes énergies (électrique, thermique, etc.).